Double bass

The story of the double-bass began at the same time and in the same place as that of all the other bowed instruments: about 500 years ago in Upper Italy. The story is riddled with a confusing array of differing construction, sizes and tunings. The two aspects that constituted the principal bones of contention were the tuning and the number of strings. Instruments corresponding in size and appearance to a double-bass were first depicted in the early 16th century. All of these early portrayals show a single large bass instrument in an ensemble with bowed instruments of the viola da braccio family. They are often augmented by a trombone or other brass instruments.

In 1542, Silvestro Ganassi developed a bass viola da gamba in Venice, which is often regarded as the “progenitor" of the double-bass. Its sloping shoulders, frets and six strings tuned mainly to fourths (D2, G2, C3, E3, A3, D4) indicate that low bowed instruments emerged originally from the gamba family. Whereas Ganassi’s instrument was not tuned to 16-foot pitch, it is known that Ventura Linarol made a bass viola da gamba in Padua in 1585 the lowest four strings of which had the same tuning as the modern double-bass: E1, A1, D2, G2, C3, F3. However, this tuning came about mainly by chance and was exceptional, since subsequent instruments show that agreement on a standard tuning was still far from being reached.

The Italian term violone (large viola), which has fallen out of common usage, gave rise to the word violoncello. In the course of history many bass and double-bass instruments of both string families were described as violones. In the 16th century the term’s application was restricted solely to instruments of the gamba family. The violone provided the fundamental bass and accompanying chords for solo voice.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the double-bass had not yet found its niche in the orchestra. From the end of the 17th century it was part of the 24 “Violons du roi".

This court string ensemble was founded in the 16th century and was probably the first orchestra in the true sense of the word, because the 24 “violins" were supplemented by 12 “hautbois"; the ensemble thus consisted of various instruments, with a single voice being played by several instruments of the same type in unison.

It was not until around 1700 that the double-bass was accepted into the opera orchestra. The men responsible for this were the Neapolitan Giuseppe Aldovrandini (1673-1707) and Marin Marais (1656-1728).

17th and 18th century scores often included parts for all three groups, the violone, violoncello and double-bass, the cello being entrusted more with solo tasks and the violone with a ripieno function.

Attempts in the 17th and 18th centuries to model the double-bass more and more on the cello were only partially successful; the hybrid form that emerged proved to be the most suitable. There were probably two types of double-bass: instruments with an enlarged body for the 16-foot range and tenor instruments which reinforced the middle voices.

The double-bass was the bowed instrument with the largest number of possible tunings. One reason for this was chordal playing, for which early evidence exists. To make it easier to finger the chords the strings were retuned (scordatura) so that they corresponded to the tonic triad desired.

A ground-breaking invention was required to make the 16-foot range really “usable": in the 17th century the low gut strings began to be covered with copper wire. The thick and heavy gut strings had hampered the musician, making more agile playing impossible. However, the new wound strings posed a new problem: the string tension was increased to such an extent that tuning became more difficult. In 1778 the violin maker Carl Ludwig Bachmann from Berlin constructed a screw mechanism on the pegbox: thumb screws on the outside of the pegbox turn small metal cogwheels that can be adjusted with such precision that the strings can be tuned to a nicety. This mechanism replaced the old wood pegs.

In the mid 18th century most double-basses were made with three strings, a practice that continued until shortly before the end of the 19th century. The three-stringed double-bass had a more powerful sound, a clearer, harder and more assertive timbre; on the other hand its range in the lower register was smaller. Its tuning was A1, D2, G2 or G1, D2, A2. Composers from the period of Viennese Classicism all had three-stringed double-basses with which to perform their orchestral works.

From the 1830s onward four-stringed double-basses were reintroduced; until the end of the century both types existed side by side, the four-stringed model eventually replacing the three-stringed as standard.

The four-stringed bass had a more mellow, smoother and weaker sound than the three-stringed version, but its range in the lower register was larger (to E1). To compensate for its weaker sound the number of instruments in the orchestra was increased. In addition, new low-pitched wind instruments such as the bass clarinet and the contrabassoon began to support it.

For the performance of 20th century works five-stringed double-basses have become necessary. The five-stringed instrument has the advantage of a range that goes down as far as B0, a note which has now become indispensable. The disadvantage: it is harder to play because of the wider fingerboard.

Since the beginning of the 20th century the double-bass’s range of tasks and playing techniques has increased enormously, inspired by entirely new tonal concepts.

In early jazz the bass part was played by the tuba or the sousaphone. The double-bass did not appear until the Classical period. In most jazz styles its task is the accentuation of the beat, which is generally achieved by the slap bass technique. In later styles it swings and “wanders", playing a melody line of its own contrivance (walking bass) as a counter melody. Rapid tempos, playing in the highest register and advanced playing techniques have become standard in modern jazz styles.

The double-bass is a transposing stringed instrument. Because of its deep pitch, notation for it is written an octave higher than it sounds in bass clef.

Until Beethoven the double-bass and cello played their parts from a shared “bass" part. The double-bass played the same part as the cello, automatically doubling it an octave below. On older or four-stringed double-basses (lowest note E1) the cello’s lowest notes (to C2) could not be played an octave lower (C1). The double-bass usually played these notes an octave higher, in unison with the cello.

In Viennese Classicism (from Joseph Haydn) until the second half of the 19th century, passages in which the double-bass came to the fore and was distinctly audible were written in treble clef - Anton Bruckner also used tenor clef. Such passages, which amounted to solo passages, sounded two octaves lower than written. The same practice also applied to the cello (which sounded one octave lower than written). In most cases, the following detail applies to this historical notation: If a phrase began in treble clef or came immediately after one in bass clef, the double-bass sounded two octaves lower. If, however, the treble clef phrase was a direct continuation of one in tenor clef the sound was only one octave lower than written, as with bass clef. The widespread use of treble clef for solo passages had the advantage of rendering frequent changes of clef or the use of many ledger lines unnecessary. The score was therefore easier to read, since the profile of the melody line was recognizable at a glance.

In Italy solo passages were written as they sounded.

As a rule many bowstrokes which come under staccato are not notated but played in the appropriate manner by the violinist. If the composer desires a particular kind of bowstroke he writes it into the score.

Melodic phrases which are to be played with a single stroke are linked by a phrasing slur. The change of bowing can occur on a single note.

Détaché / Detached
Non-legato technique, strokes alternately up and down without the bow being lifted from the string.

1. Détaché or detached is often written explicitly into the score.
2. Strong détaché is indicated by a dot above the note.
3. The strongest détaché consists solely of downstrokes. The bow is lifted from the string after every stroke.

Martelé
Hammered stroke (in Italian martellato = hammered).

Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the bow remaining on the string.

Sul tasto and sul ponticello
Because of the effect it has on timbre the place where the bow should make contact with the string is often written into the score. Sulla tastiera (or sul tasto, sur la touche meaning on the fingerboard), sul ponticello (on the bridge).

Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Pizzicato
Plucked. Changing from pizzicato to arco
The change from bowed (arco) to plucked (pizzicato) and back is always written in full. (The part is to played pizzicato until arco is written). “Bartók pizzicato" (“snap" pizzicato) The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This produces a very resounding sound which is used for percussive effects. Notation: a circle with a tail pointing either upward or downward above each note.

Measured bowed tremolo
The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point.

The impression given is of a “trembling" sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal intensification. Double stops can also be played tremolo. The bow tremolo is usually measured, i.e. the number of strokes corresponds exactly to the notated division of the whole note value which determines the length of the tremolo. This kind of tremolo must be played in absolute synchronization by all the violinists. Freely playable tremolo also exists.

Tremolos have been part of the strings’ standard repertoire of effects since the beginning of the 19th century.

Unmeasured bowed tremolo

Col legno (with the wood, French: avec le bois)
Hitting or bowing the string with the wood of the bow. The first technique produces a hammer effect and is used for repeated figures. The latter sounds cracked, rough and dry and is of indeterminate pitch. Behind the bridge
The string is bowed between the bridge and the string tuner.

An X is written on the staff at the pitch levels corresponding to the open strings which are to be played. The pitch heard is indeterminate, the different strings produce various pitches.

Harmonics
Harmonics can be notated in one of two ways:

1. Either in treble clef at the actual pitch (not an octave higher than it sounds as with fingered pitches in bass clef). Often the words “actual pitch" or “sounding" are added in the score. This type of notation, which avoids ledger lines, is generally preferred by composers.

2. Or in bass clef, the sound then being an octave lower than written (as with fingered pitches).

Portamento
An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of position. The effect is of two notes being joined together in a suggestion of a glissando.

Con sordino
Con sordino (with mute) calls for the use of the mute, which is not to be removed until instructed to do so by the term senza sordino. Double stops
Are hard to play and rarely called for. Pizzicato
Pizzicato with the left hand is indicated by a “+" above the note.

Finger tremolo
Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note. In contrast to the bow tremolo, when rapid up and downstrokes produce the tremolo effect, bowing here is smooth and even over the string. The result is a kind of trill.

Su una corda
The instruction to play a cantilena on a particular string (e.g. sul G). Su una corda means “on one string".

Range of the double-bass: B0 - G4 (harmonic G6).

• B string (B0 - F#2)
• E string (E1 - B2)
• A string (A1 - E3)
• D string (D2 - D4)
• G string (G2 - G4)

Sound is produced by moving the bow over the string or by plucking it with the right hand. Pitch alterations are achieved by pressing down the string with the fingertips of the left hand on the fingerboard. This shortens the vibrating portion of the string and raises the pitch.

The double-bass is played in the standing position with the tail-pin resting on the floor.

The thumb position is used mainly in high positions and for double stops and artificial harmonics.

Change of string and change of position

Five strings with an interval of a fourth are available: B0 (5th string), E1 (4th string), A1 (3rd string), D2 (2nd string), G2 (1st string). The bottom string is nearest the bowing hand.

There is no fundamental difference between sound production on the double-bass and on the smaller bowed instruments. But because the strings are more than three times as long as the violin’s the distance between whole and half notes on the fingerboard is greater; for example, on the double-bass the length of a violin fingerboard is necessary to play a major third (two whole notes). The result is a special fingering system.

As on all stringed instruments, fingering is based on the system of positions. Because of the great length of the strings (95-115 cm) the distances between the half steps are very wide. It is for this reason that the strings are tuned to fourths and not fifths.

The fingering is not consistently chromatic; without changing position a whole tone step is the most that can be fingered: for example, if the forefinger plays an E on the D string the middle (or ring) finger can reach F and the little finger F#. G is the next open string.

Up to the thumb position (from 7th position) the ring and little fingers are treated as one single finger. The playing fingers are therefore the forefinger, middle finger and little finger (the ring finger is often used to support the little finger, in accordance with the anatomy of the hand).

The fingering described above is valid up to 6th position.

The thumb position is used from 7th position. There are five thumb positions. Every position is used on all four strings. From the 3rd thumb position upward only the two top strings are used.

Natural harmonics are played by touching the open string lightly with the finger at the desired point. These respond very well on the double-bass and are used up to the 6th partial on the H and E strings, and up to the 8th partial on the A, D and G strings. Even higher harmonics than these can be produced and are also called for in solo pieces. The notation of harmonics is non-transposing (an octave higher than the notes played by pressing down the string), the sound is as written due to the pitch in treble clef.

In contrast to the higher bowed instruments only a very limited number of artificial harmonics can be played on the double-bass. In the lower register touching the strings at a third, fourth or fifth produces no harmonic. Artificial harmonics at a fourth are possible between the 1st and 8th thumb positions and are usually only played on the G string.

Bowing is essentially the same as on the higher-pitched bowed instruments.

The entire length of the bow must be held at right angles to the string. This produces the purest notes.

The bow is thicker at the frog than at the point. Short, rapid notes are generally played at the point. The speed of bowing must be altered to correspond to the pressure of the bow; a faster speed of bowing with higher bow pressure produces a louder sound.

Two-part fingering on adjacent strings. All intervals are playable from a minor third to a fifth (and are easier to play on the top strings). From the thumb position upward greater intervals are also possible.

Technically the same as a finger tremolo and ranges between a half step and a whole step. Can only be played slowly in low positions. High noise level.

Two notes are played as a tremolo on the same string as follows: the finger in the lower position fingers the string and keeps it pressed down while the other finger quickly and repeatedly stops and releases a higher note. The only intervals possible are a minor and major second, so it is technically the same as a trill. In low positions it can only be played slowly. The level of extraneous noise is high. A minor third can only be played as a tremolo in high positions.

A harmonic played on an open string.

A finger touches the string very lightly at the desired point. Natural harmonics respond very well on the double-bass and are used up to the 6th partial on the H and E strings, and up to the 8th partial on the A, D and G strings.

Because of the length of the strings, very high harmonics can be produced and are also called for in solo pieces. The notation of harmonics is non-transposing the sound is as written due to the pitch in treble clef.

Harmonic on a fingered string.

In contrast to the higher bowed instruments only a very limited number of artificial harmonics can be played on the double-bass. In the lower register touching the strings at a third, fourth or fifth produces no harmonic. Artificial harmonics at a fourth are possible between the 1st and 8th thumb positions and are usually only played on the G string.

The musician transfers the vibrations of the left hand onto the string. The result is fluctuating pitch and loudness. The vibrato depends on the extent of these fluctuations and the speed. Vibrato can be produced by movement of the finger, hand or arm or a combination of these. Exactly how it develops depends on the position and playing technique. Vibrato playing helps to achieve greater expression.

It was not until the 19th century that it became widespread; early music was probably played for the most part without vibrato. The technique only found its way into orchestral playing in the 20th century.

A plucked note is caused to vibrate by the finger. This playing technique is often used to add tone color, and damps the reverberation particularly on the bottom strings.

An audible slide of the finger along the string with accompanying change of position. The effect is of two notes being joined together in a suggestion of a glissando. Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) made frequent use of this means of expression in his symphonies.

Can be played easily on all bowed instruments.

The left hand touches a string and plucks it. The plucked note is usually accompanied by bowed notes on strings which are not being played pizzicato. “Normal" pizzicato is performed by the right hand.

(with mute)

The mute is made of wood or rubber and alters the timbre.

The Langlois effect was discovered at the beginning of the 19th century and is described by Hector Berlioz in his theory of instrumentation (1844). The string (usually the top one) is pinched between the thumb and forefinger without touching the fingerboard and is then bowed. This produces notes that resemble a loud cry. Richard Strauss uses this effect in his opera Salome.

Changing the strings’ tuning is done to increase the range in the low register, to make certain keys easier to play and to alter the timbre.

Non-legato technique, bowstrokes alternately up and down without the bow leaving the string. Articulation of individual notes, clearly separated from neighboring notes. The bow changes direction on each note.

Accentuated détaché. Hammered bowing (in Italian martellato = hammered).

Every stroke, whether up or down, is ended abruptly, the bow remaining on the string. The result is a hard sound, like a hammer-on, with brief pauses between. Short, individual strokes are usually performed at the point.

(at the bridge)
The bow makes contact with the string near the bridge.

The nearer the bridge the string is bowed the greater the volume. The timbre becomes brighter but at the same time glassy, shrill, eerie, pale and thin. The number of partials increases. The technique is used as a tremolo to produce eerie effects.

(on the fingerboard)
The bow makes contact with the string near the fingerboard.

The nearer the fingerboard the string is bowed the weaker and softer the sound. The number of partials decreases. The effect is a muffled and flute-like sound (the technique is often also called flautando ).

Most playing techniques are possible both sul ponticello and sulla tastiera.

Each note is played by one stroke. The direction of the bow is changed quickly and imperceptibly, the bow remaining on the string. The technique is not indicated by a slur.

A group of notes is played with a single stroke so that one note flows into the next without a break. This technique is always indicated by a slur.

(heavy legato)
Several notes are played with one stroke.

Although there are slight breaks between the notes the impression of legato remains. Applies to repeated notes or notes with the same value.

(related to louré)
Several notes on the same stroke, each one being slightly accented and sustained to its full value.

The impression created is one of non legato. This technique applies mainly to repeated notes or notes with the same value such as scales.

Plucking of the strings with the right hand. This technique originated on the lute in the 16th century and is applied to chords as well as single notes.

“Bartók" pizzicato (“snap" pizzicato)
The string is lifted with two fingers of the right hand so that it snaps back onto the fingerboard when let go. This produces a very resounding and percussive sound.

A series of short strokes in the course of one whole stroke, usually an upstroke.

Strong staccato: As with martelé playing the bowstroke is in one direction only, the bow coming to rest on the string between each partial stroke.

Flying staccato: The bow is lifted from the string between the notes.

Leaping staccato, produced by beginning a new bowstroke for every note (as with détaché playing one up and downstroke per note). The leaping effect results from the elasticity of the bow, which swings to and fro and is controlled by the right hand.

Spiccato is indicated by a staccato dot over each note. No slur.

(saltato)
A rapid and light spiccato, which is uncontrolled.

The bow can bounce two to three times, resulting in short groups of repeated notes (typical in chords as an accompaniment figure). The technique consists of two to three short up and downstrokes in virtually the same place and can only be performed piano or mezzopiano.

Notation: a tie with dots above the note or staccato dots only. The bow is at its most elastic in the middle. Many piano or pianissimo staccato effects are in fact performed sautillé in the orchestra.

Thrown, several saltato leaps on one stroke.

The bow does not fall on the string with the force of its own weight but is thrown onto it so that the leaping effect continues in the same direction. Following its first impact on the strings the bow performs a precise number of leaps, usually three or four. Groups of three or four notes can therefore be played before the bow has to be thrown again. As far as p and mf. Possible on both the upstroke and the downstroke.

The repetition of a note with no accent or rhythm by means of very fast up and downstrokes at the point.

The impression given is of a “trembling" sound, which is used especially for dramatic effect and tonal intensification. The effect ranges from subtle and shadowy when played pianissimo to menacing and rumbling when played fortissimo.

Tremolos have been part of the strings’ standard repertoire of effects since the beginning of the 19th century.

(related to louré)
Several notes on the same stroke, each one being slightly accented and sustained to its full value.

The impression created is one of non legato. This technique applies mainly to repeated notes or notes with the same value such as scales.

Heavy, weighty, dark, weightless, wafting, somber, earthy, resonant, rasping, broad, hollow, dull, mighty, menacing, violent, mellow, sustaining, aspirate.

Like the tuba, the double-bass lacks the high partials due to its great size, although the first six partials are especially prominent which makes the timbre dark, broad and dull. This broadness, while not dominant, still possesses great power and represents the essence of the double-bass’s sound. It is this characteristic that is the basis of the instrument’s principal task in the symphony orchestra - playing the fundamental bass.

It must be remembered that the double-bass produces long reverberations which are damped by the hand when necessary. The length of reverberation varies greatly. The following criteria apply:

1. Fortissimo notes on open strings can reverberate for more than 10 seconds. On fingered notes the reverberation is a third shorter (F#1 sounds markedly shorter than E1).
2. The higher the pitch of the string the longer the reverberation (up to 40% longer). The G string reverberates longest.
3. The reverberation is relatively quiet (approximately 20% of the maximum volume).
4. Open strings have limited dynamic potential.

• C string (C2-F3)
  This string sounds weighty, dark, powerful. Its darkly powerful sound makes it highly suitable for performing a sonorous fundamental bass.

• B and E strings
  These have a full and dark sound. Their great volume is capable of “carrying" the entire orchestra. It can be difficult to tell what the exact pitch of the lowest notes actually is. It must be remembered that the double-bass as a whole, and particularly its bottom strings, produces long reverberations which are damped by the hand when necessary.

• A string
  Sonorous timbre, clearer and more precise than the bottom strings, suitable for the fundamental bass.

• D and G strings
  These strings share the cello’s range, but on the double-bass the same notes sound fuller, more powerful and much darker. This is because they do not have the same high number of partials as they do on the cello. On the cello, these sounds are more incisive.

Two tasks should be emphasized here: on the one hand the double-bass, as the fundamental bass instrument, is capable of particularly good tonal combinations with all the other instruments, especially with its smaller partner the cello and all harmony instruments as well. Its powerful sound must provide a solid foundation which can support the sound structure and with which the other instruments blend. It should not be overbearing. On the other hand it is also capable of playing melody lines, solo lines which stand out.

The greatest problem faced by the double-bass is its distance from the middle and upper voices.

Because of its construction the double-bass projects the first six partials particularly well, which results in a strong and broad sound that lacks the high properties responsible for brilliance and clarity. In orchestration it is important to take into consideration the fact that the double-bass’s relatively powerful partials can mask the fundamentals of comparatively soft instruments with few overtones such as the flute. The double-bass must therefore be used judiciously, and rests from time to time.

All stringed instruments form a group with a homogeneous overall sound and perform tasks ranging from the subtlest tonal effects to the most eloquent reinforcements of sound and from the greatest possible tonal compactness to the greatest possible diversity. The stringed instruments are the most homogeneous of all groups in the symphony orchestra. Since Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) the strings have been the heart of the orchestra.

String sections
String sections in large orchestras are composed as follows:

• 1st violins: 16
• 2nd violins: 14
• Violas: 12
• Cellos: 10
• Double-basses: 8.

In late romantic works - R. Wagner, G. Mahler, R. Strauss - and 20th century pieces the strings are divided into a large number of parts (divisi).

Double-basses played divisi in octaves create an impression of dullness because the sound is augmented by scarcely any higher partials which would brighten it. In addition the partials of higher instruments are masked.

The violas often play parallel to the double-basses and two octaves higher, reinforcing the latter’s partials. This is especially effective when the double-basses are in the lowest register. The acerbic character of this combination speaks for itself.

Double-basses playing an octave below cellos is a “classic" combination. The bass voice in octaves it produces has the great virtue of retaining its credibility as a sustaining bass even at low volume; in other words it forms a bass foundation that always allows the other instruments to the fore. The cello brightens the relatively dull sound of the double-bass and tempers its roughness. Playing both instruments pizzicato produces a particularly resonant effect. The double-bass is often called upon to play pizzicato while the cello plays arco an octave above it.

Produce an extremely resonant combination in unison as well as in chordal playing.

The mellowness of the bass clarinet is similar to that of the double-bass. The overall effect is mellow and full-sounding. Combinations in unison and octaves are possible.

In unison with the double-bass the contrabassoon reduces the thickness of the former’s sound and makes it more precise.

The horn playing two or three octaves above the double-bass produces a mellow overall sound.

The trombone makes the double-bass sound more precise. A good effect is produced when the double-bass plays the trombone line an octave deeper.

The tuba played in unison with the double-bass broadens and reinforces the latter’s timbre.

The bow tremolo played fortissimo together with a roll on the timpani provides a rumbling background for tutti passages.

From the days of J. S. Bach onward it became increasingly common to have the bass voice played by the cello and the double-bass an octave below it. In classical works this combination, by now traditional, performed the fundamental bass with no support from other instruments. In Beethoven’s music the double-bass slowly began to gain independence from the cello. Support for the double-bass as the fundamental bass instrument from the bass clarinet, contrabassoon, bass trombone and the bass and contrabass tubas did not arrive until the Romantic era when the orchestra began to expand.

During nearly 500 years of existence the double-bass has not been restricted solely to the performance of its principal role of deepest voice in the orchestra. In Viennese Classicism and from the end of the 19th century it was also entrusted with an increasing number of solo tasks. Composers such as Richard Strauss, Maurice Ravel and Igor Stravinsky also used it in higher registers (harmonics) because of its distinctive timbre.

• Eugène Hartzell

  • Monologue 6. Considerations (1967)

• Luca Lombardi

  • Essay (1975)

• Giselher Klebe

  • Sechs Stücke op. 68 (1978)

• W. A. Mozart

  • Concert aria "Per questa bella mano" K. 612 (1791)

• Luigi Boccherini

  • Sonata for cello and bass

• Gioacchino Rossini

  • String sonatas

• Franz Schubert

  • Trout quintet D. 667 (1819)

• Paul Hindemith

  • Sonata for double-bass and piano (1949)

• Joseph Haydn

  • Concerto Hob. VII/c (1763)
  • Double-bass solos in several symphonies

• Domenico Dragonetti

  • Concertos

• Karl Ditters v. Dittersdorf

  • Concertos E-flat major and E major

• Joh. Matthias Sperger

  • Concerto E-flat major (1777)

• Johann Vanhal

  • Concertos

• Anton Zimmermann

  • Concerto D-major

• Friedrich Anton Hoffmeister

  • Concerto E-flat major

• Giovanni Bottesini

  • Concertos f-sharp minor and b minor
  • Grand Duo concertant for violin, double-bass and orchestra

• Serge Koussevitzky

  • Concerto for Double-bass and Orchestra

• Paul Hindemith

  • Concerto for Double-bass and Orchestra

• Hans Werner Henze

  • Concerto (1966)

• Gunther Schuller

  • Concerto (1968)

• Erich Urbanner

  • Concerto (1973)

• Antonio Vivaldi

  • concertos, Le quattro stagioni (The four Seasons) (op.8)

• George F. Handel

  • Concerti grossi

• Johann Sebastian Bach

  • suites for strings

• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

  • Eine kleine Nachtmusik for strings

• Piotr I. Tchaikovsky

  • string serenade

• Edward Grieg

  • From Holberg´s time op. 40 (1885)

• Gustav Mahler

  • Adagietto, 5. symphony (1904)

• Samuel Barber

  • Adagio for strings (1936/38)

• Ralph Vaughan Williams

  • Fantasy on a theme by Thomas Tallis

• Béla Bartók

  • Divertimento for string orchestra Sz 113 / BB 118 (1940)
  • Music for stringed instruments, percussion, and celesta Sz 106 / BB 114 (1937)

• Witold Lutosławski

  • Musique funèbre (Funeral music for Bartók) for strings (1958)

• Alfred Schnittke

  • Concerto grosso Nr.1 (1977)
  • sonata

• György Ligeti

  • Ramifications for 2 string orchestras